Purchasing Cheap knockoff LV Cosmic Blossom handbags

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What are hypnotic language patterns

Language is an interesting thing. The most amazing thing isn't that we get confused by it but that we're able to use it so well without confusion.

Language is such a powerful tool that, in skilled hands, it can be used to persuade, motivate, seduce and even harm.

That's right, in skilled hands (or mouths?) language can even create addictions and depression.

This power comes from learning what are called hypnotic language patterns.

Hypnotic language patterns came out of the studies of hypnosis, psychology and sales. When language patterns were first discovered the psychotherapy community realized that they could be used inappropriately. They then made a sincere effort to limit instruction of language patterns only to psychiatrists willing to pay $2000 for the weekend training.

These language patterns entered the popular culture with weekend long seduction seminars that began to spring up to teach lonely and clueless men how talk women into an uncontrollable state of arousal.

Now before you start to roll your eyes in disbelief let me tell you that these language patterns did just that! There are scores of now satisfied men who will attest to their power.

An example of these seduction patterns is one in which the man simple begins talking to a woman about emotions and feelings that precede arousal. There is nothing lurid or suggestive about this because it's not about arousal or sex itself. At an unconscious level it sets the stage for warm tingly feelings that might elicit a tilt of the head, a smile and a flirtatious glance.

Seduction is only one side of how language patterns are being used. They are of course very useful in sales and influence and many a politician have hired speech writers who training in these powerful tools. Ronald Reagan wasn't known as The Teflon President without reason. He could woo and amuse the most uninterested audience by using language. Likewise in spite of the scandals around him Bill Clinton always was able to be liked as a person.

In recent years there have even been language pattern trainings that emphasize how to use language to induce guilt, depression and suicide. While these trainers have been condemned for turning to the dark side there is no limit of people wanting to learn.

These language patterns often begin by painting the dark picture of the future and describe feelings of hopelessness and despair.

But the genie is out of the bottle now and people who want power, whether it's to help or to harm, are attending seminars and trainings as well as reading the many books on the subject.

To conclude, never underestimate the power of words. They are used on you in ways that you might never imagine.

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Success A Holistic Perspective to Business and Life

The world has always been mixed with the rich, the poor and the middle ground. Should we assume that if you make more and more money, that you are more and more successful? Perhaps not.....looking at ourselves and life that way just keeps us trapped in our animal/primate history. You see in the animal/primate world, the big male controls all the sex and resources, he's the successful one and those around him are less fortunate. This mentality has been the driving force in our political and financial life for all of human history. So, as we continue to evolve, this model seems a bit outdated, and not really a uniquely human definition. So, how can we define and create success from a more evolved position?

When I was growing up...way back in the 50s, a successful business person had an expensive car parked in their driveway, they had the house most could only dream of, and the beautiful wife as well. Things looked real good ... but that was rarely the whole story. They also had an ulcer, drank and smoked to handle all the stress, was often on medication and lived with endless stress symptoms. Yet by the old model, they were successful inspite of the fact that they were in big trouble on the inside. However, this was normal and accepted as the norm at that time.

Then came the 60s, and all hell broke loose! The older model was challanged by a very large population called the baby boomers.....and there were alot of us. We experimented with all kinds of new and radical ideas. We saw that the older path had flaws and were trying to evolve beyond that. Some of our efforts paid off in the growing holistic health and mental health movements. We became aware of an inner life that had been neglected by earlier generations.

However, where we found our inner selves in private, when we went to work in the corporate world, things had not made much shift there. So, we did what we could to change things, but really just got drowned out by the older model being so firmly in place. So it became normal to have a split life, one that was for our personal self and the other for the corporate world. It's like living with a split personality. [ This split model seems to be the current norm..we complain about it...but ]

Then came the clash of cultures that resulted in 911, and all the corporate scandals that rocked the business world. So here we are living beyond the year 2000, yet still trying to evolve. Well, at the rate we make changes, it's most likely that things will not resolve themselves in your whole lifetime. Are we all still trapped in the past or is there a way out? There is a path through the garbage but one that only some will travel. At this point in history that new path must be one taken by personal choice. I don't suggest you wait for everyone to change into a newer, healthier norm.....if you value a quality life.. don't wait for others..you will die before that happens.

The holistic movement is trying to expand into the business world. There are only a few of us at this time working on this...but that's life! Things have to start somewhere. Holism deals with the whole of things. I no longer consider a person or business successful if their inner life is a mess. To be really successful by a wholistic point of view you need to consider the impact of every action on every level of the business, including the health and mental health of you, the staff and your customer base. Taking that even one step further, you need to consider the impact on the global community.

Sounds like too much to handle, but there are tools and techniques that are evolving to help you if you want to operate from this approach. The business world needs to do some tough soul searching, and then help will come along. When you change you inner choices, things will start to happen!

Oh, by the way, going wholistic does not mean going broke. It's part of a package deal, when you clear up alot of business karma.....very often the business becomes more successful financially!!!

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Five Principals for Prosperity

Many years ago, forty to be exact, I started my own business at the tender age of nineteen. The street markets in and around Manchester England was my happy hunting ground. Every day was an adventure and despite the weather and difficulties of getting a stall on the street market, life was always fun and enjoyable. There was always some comical incident, even when I had to stand in the pouring rain, with no customers in sight. And if there was no amusing event to focus on I created one and made other people laugh.

Within a few years my business progressed and I opened a wholesale textile company. I went on to become a very successful businessman not only making money in my original business, but also in commercial property and the stock market. I retired from the business world forty-six years of age.

After a six year, time-out period, so that I could understand why I was successful with no effort, I reinvented myself and became...... An author, poet, philosopher, motivational/inspirational/financial speaker, radio show host, director, producer and many other labels, within the past five years. How was all this achieved with not a mention of the word "work" in my vocabulary.....Well, you see, I just enjoy everything I am doing and if it is enjoyable, how can a class it as work?

When I read the headlines in the newspapers describing the corruption and scandals in large and small corporations I wonder why the executives had to lie and cheat to earn money? It is far easier and less risky to make money the honest way, so why do people do things the hard way and end up in disgrace?

What makes some people believe they need a billion dollars to be happy?

Why has greed become so fashionable?

Why in many instances do we seem to treat our fellow human worse than a wild dog? Our animal instincts, although contained in a civilized package, can be savage and uncaring, especially in the business world. It has literally become Dog-eat-Dog.

In life there is always an easy way and a hard way to do everything so how about I share with you five principals of business that cannot fail.

As we climb the ladder of success there are many other folks on higher rungs who may try to kick us down. There are also those who have not got on the first rung yet who will try and pull us down. So how do we cope in a modern day world of hungry hounds eager to get their hands on as much money as possible any way they can?

Levy's Five Principals for Prosperity

Principal Number One.

Enjoyment.

We should understand the world does not owe us a living. We will succeed or fail by the amount of Joy we have for the project we will call our work. The number one ingredient is enthusiasm and commitment for the job in hand. We have to understand that very few things will go in the direction we desire and the more we practice our skills, the luckier we will become. We manufacture our own luck and to recognizing opportunities is the key to success. Every viewpoint, in every business day, has to be explored. Never say no to anything until we have examined every possibility and outcome. Even if we find that it is not what we desire, we leave the door open for future development. If we are only interested in what we can get out of any action of the moment, we are doomed for failure.

Principal Number Two.

Giving

A key ingredient in a successful venture is giving rather than taking. In other words give the best and you will receive the best. If you do not have the ability to give the best, keep on trying different approaches until you can give the best. Whatever you give you will get back in abundance. There are those who have achieved money and status by devious means. They may have all the trappings of the luxury lifestyle, but they do not possess the clear mind to enjoy the fruits of their labor. Therefore, they are not a success to themselves. All the stresses and strains of cheating will one day manifest into an illness. You can mislead other people but you cannot lie to your immune system. So, it pays big dividends to give others a helping hand up the ladder of success.

Principal Number Three.

Overcome Adversity.

Enjoy the failures more than the successes. Understand there is no such thing as failure. Each lesson learnt, is a lesson gained. Just don't keep making the same mistakes. Everything is a gain, gain situation. Negative people are our stepping stones to wealth. The more they tell us it can't be done, the more energy they give us to get the job done successfully. Adversities are sent to test our resolve. Become a good hurdler and learn how to jump over them.

If we require an answer to a difficult problem we need to solve this is what we do. We ask any questions we need to solve, a few minutes before we go to sleep and then forget about it. We then go into a sound, deep sleep. The next morning on awakening we may get an idea from out-of-the-blue that solves the issue. If not that morning, then it may take more time to solve. Ask the question every night until the matter resolves itself.

Principal Number Four.

Debt free

It is far better to walk before we can run. We must not pile up too much debt. If we cannot afford something then we work a little harder and longer until we have the funds to expand. I know this is not the modern way of thinking and there are always exceptions to the rule, but being debt free sure makes for 'Peaceful Sleep.' Being 'Under Pressure' to pay bills is no way to live. Our purpose is to enjoy life and our labor must be a labor of love without demands.

Principal Number Five

Enjoy Endurance.

Remember the three P's Patients Persistence, Perseverance. If we trust in our True Self' then we cannot fail. As long as we are enjoying our business activities in the same way as we enjoy our leisure, success is assured. If it takes a few years more than we thought to achieve our goal, then so much the better, because we have more time to gain extra experience.... It will allow for more time for you to exhibit to people that you are trustworthy and reliable. Integrity cannot be bought, therefore once you gain authentic credibility, everything else you do eases into its appropriate space. It will eventually mean other business people will regarded us as an expert in your field of proficiency. You have mastered time and space.

With the five principles for prosperity deposited into your memory banks you are ready to build new bridges. Networks with all the new and innovative companies in your field.

We are constantly entering new areas of Hi-Technology. Business today needs new innovation and leadership to succeed. This is year 2004 and new dimensions of thought are need for success. Therefore, it is more important then ever to project the five principles of prosperity.

You will also need to understand how to overcome and eliminate worry and anxiety. It is essential to find inner peace and harmony to relieve the burdens of stress.

By allow our minds the freedom of silence that transcends to higher dimensions, we will find infinite possibilities. Our potential for success is only limited by what we think we know. That type of limitation can cause great pressure, therefore we require an objective detachments from outside events we cannot control. What we can only execute what we are able to perform and what seems impossible at one moment, we can do at another appropriate moment.

When we open our imagination (image-maker), we open the doorway to success. Every human mind has a wormhole in the deepest section of the brain that can take the minds thoughts into what Einstein called the Creative Mind of God.' Einstein declared, he wanted to know what God is thinking, everything else is mere details....and so it is.

It is never too late in life to explore your minds links to creativity

Even when we retire from our occupation, we must never retire from life. The secret to retirement is to keep an active mind. I have a friend aged eighty-seven who still enjoys working as a realtor selling apartments. He tells me it makes him feel like a young pup. There are many hobbies we can enjoy and maybe they will make money? Regular exercise will keep us healthy and it also keeps the sex drive in gear. Aging signifies, life is still a joyride to an active mind.

Are you now ready to accept success?

Just one other point......It is important to note that we will never actual own anything. We only possess what we can take on our eternal journey. We are just renting space and time, so our success is not measured by our bank balance. We live in a materialistic world and to become truly prosperous we need to ascertain that, when we reverse our conditioned minds way of thinking, we find ......( in whatever form our image-creation observes creativity) A Universal spirit guiding us on an authentic life course. What a power-force to guide us and establish an easy way to follow to prosperity.

All rights reserved © Michael Levy 2004

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Miss World: Crowns and Scandals over Time

Miss World 2010 is seen to be the oldest international beauty pageant among greatest beauty contests Miss Universe, Miss Earth, and Miss International. In 59-year history of the Miss World pageant, besides great contributions like in charity activities, beauty queens were depraved in scandals of nude photo shoot, drug use, sex. After being crowned Miss World, beauty delegates became well-known and got much attention from press and media about their activities, even personal life. Let\'s have a review at Miss World contestants with controversies and scandals during 59 editions. Marjorie Wallace from United States was crowned Miss World 1973. Then, Wallace had to return her crown because of being accused of dating too many different-class men. Marjorie was dethroned after only 104 days crowned with the reason "not to complete the mission of a Miss". The 1st runner-up undertook the mission of Marjorie Wallace. Marjorie Wallace- Miss World 1973 Lesley Langley from England won Miss World 1965. The British beauty followed up the previous victory of Miss World 1654. However, the rumors that Lesley Langley was done a nude photo shoot made her crown meaningless. Lesley Langley- Miss World 1965 Jennifer Josephine Hosten, Miss Grenada was crowned Miss World 1970. The controversies of the religion issue of the contest offered unfair results for contestants. Two most brilliant faces were Miss Sweden, Maj Christel Johansson and Miss Grenada- Jennifer Josephine Hosten. Jennifer Josephine Hosten received just 4 out of 9 polls from the consulting board; however, she won the title. Her victory left lots of debates. Jennifer Josephine Hosten- Miss World 1970 Helen Elizabeth Morgan became Miss World 1974. Before that, she won the 1st runner-up title of Miss Universe. She was the 2nd delegate from Wales the 4nd delegate from Great Britain to be crowned Miss World. Nevertheless, 4 days later, she was dethroned due to having a baby. Helen Elizabeth Morgan- Miss World 1974 Mary Ann Catrin Stavin from Sweden was crowned Miss World 1977. Unfortunately, she was drunk before appearing on stage at the final night. It was reported that Mary Ann Catrin Stavin brought a bottle of whiskey on the Theatre Royal Albert Hall (London, England). Mary Ann Catrin Stavin - Miss World 1977 Gabriella Brum was crowned Miss World 1980. Only one day after the finale night, she returned the crown for the reason: her boyfriend disagreed. However, in fact, Gabriella Brum was dethroned due to posing nude for a magazines. Gabriella Brum - Miss World 1980 Ulla Weigerstorfer- Miss World 1987 (middle) and two runner-ups. She lost the crown due to her some nude photos post by her boyfriend. Ulla Weigerstorfer - Miss World 1987 Diana Hayden won Miss World 1997. However, it was doubtful that she won the title thanks to her relationship with a jury member despite her admirable beauty and excellent performances during the contest. Diana Hayden - Miss World 1997 Related links: Miss World Cup 2010 � Gathering of beauty Priyanka Chopra - The MissWorld MissWorld 2008

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Why buy adult films

Feeling horny but no ones there to feed your fantasies? Tired of staring at those porn photos? Been wanting to see a real action? Despair no, adult dvds are here to the rescue! Feast your eyes with these hot babes who are just too willing to give you a peek on one of their so-loved body parts or on guys naughtily playing their shafts as they get harder and harder. Be amazed with how a chick would so enjoy being licked by three totally naked all around her body.

Share the feverish sensation with a couple screaming in pleasure while they both are about to reach the seventh heaven. Feel and enjoy how a woman on top position would make a guy crazy and would keep asking for more. It would not be a shame to admit if we do enjoy these movies. Well if it pleases you, then go for it. If you think that people watch porn films just because they are kinky, think again; there is more to than just gratifying themselves. There are some people who feel insecure in bed. They think that they are not a good bed partner, that they are not capable of giving their mates the best sack session or in other words they are boring bed mates.

Lovemaking is a physical manifestation of couples love for each other and of course as a mate it is a sort of obligation to give your partner the things that would make her happy and that include sex. Need a sex teacher who could give you the best sex techniques and be the best sex partner? Nope, you dont need to enroll in a sex crash course. All you have to do is buy porn dvds or do a porn dvd download. Xxx porn dvds are the best sex teachers you can easily rely on. Learn and master the techniques and you will be a sex guru or sex god in the making and maybe you can even write a sex book in the future. Good and helpful entertainment need not to be expensive, invest on cheap porn dvds and learn the know-how in bringing your mate to the seventh heaven. But remember not all people who keep adult dvds do have the same purpose.

Some are just curious or a few might just want to come up with a good term paper about porn films. Whatever the reason is,always remember to be responsible viewers or owners of these materials. No one could stop us from watching titillating movies but it would not hurt us to be a little careful. Watch them with the right people of the right age at he right places of course. So what are you waiting for, do not deprive yourselves of the things that would give you happiness and satisfaction. They say do what pleases you so there would be no reason for you to stop yourself from enjoying these movies. Porn dvds might just be the answer to your sex problems.

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Sharing intimacy is the best way to fix a marriage

In a recent conducted by Brigham Young University, it was found that 86.1% of men viewed porn dvds in the past year compared to only 31% of women. Aside from this, around 21% of the men viewed porn almost every day while only 1% of the women did the same.

Now with these figures, you might ask, why do people buy porn dvds? Well there are actually a lot of answers to that question. Perhaps the most important one concerns couples who are on the road to breaking up. Some people claim that with the husband getting more engrossed with pornography, the marriage starts to disintegrate. Sometimes the man will look for adventure and will try to get it on with someone else because he cant get the same sexual satisfaction with his wife. But this isnt entirely true.

In most cases, a marriage breaks down because of lack of intimacy, true, but the lack of intimacy is not due to the husband giving attention to xxx porn dvds. It is due to a lot of aspects that the couple consider as taboo. It is due to many other factors and in most cases sex is the only way to resolve it.

Did you know that in several studies, researchers claim that the best time to resolve a problem is after sex? This is because the couple is both tired and relaxed. It is then easier to talk about a lot of topics as you both tend to listen to what the other have to say. Conversation is improved because the couple is in an intimate situation and it is so much harder to break out into a shouting match as both of you will probably not be in the mood for arguing.

So, many marriage counselors suggest that married couples do something to spice up their marriage. For those who have the budget, they can go on their second honeymoon. For the others who have kids and wont have enough financial resources to travel, you can get intimate with your partners while at home. How about some porn dvd download? Or perhaps you can get cheap porn dvds from the nearest video store. You can then arrange for the kids to be away for a night, take them to grandmas or the nearest relative so you and your partner can have the night all for yourself.

Now thats set, you can then proceed to make a nice dinner, take a bath, dress up and wait for your partner to come home. You might want to set a romantic ambience in the house. To do this, you can turn off all the lights and use a candle. Or you can turn on sensual music. Nice huh? After eating you can perhaps take a walk in the park or if you and your partner so decide, you can go and have a conversation at the patio.

When its almost time for bed, you can both watch adult dvds to spice the evening! Sure, porn dvds arent the only way to fix a marriage thats almost broken, but these are also not the main cause of the problem. Share a little intimacy once in a while and watch things he likes, who knows, maybe youll like it too, then you can both experiment, which makes the experience more worthwhile.

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Fixing your marriage is so easy

Is your marriage at risk? Perhaps you do not have good sex. Or maybe, you are deprived of having a good one. Perhaps, not having sex is not the problem at all. Maybe, it is the way sex is done which is the problem. Well, it happens at times. Not all good sex are good at all. Some may make you scream, some may disappoint your giggling tits, some may make your world go round. But no matter how these things may not give you total satisfaction, you must do something to save that relationship.

Why not buy adult dvds or porn dvds. There are a lot of them on the market. Cheap porn dvds are anywhere, even on the internet. Search one on the net and you will be amazed on how your sex life would be enticed. Some sites may even allow you to download porn dvds.

Let me tell you something about buying adult dvds. They are not bad at all. These porn dvds show sex as an art of making love. The magnificence of making love is captivated in these adult dvds. Check out the internet site on adultfilms. This site gives you more than what you could ask for. More so, buy dvds online from them. You could buy as much as your appetite needs. Learn from the experts of making love. You could go from mainstream sex scenes to extreme ones. Of course, I suggest you start with the mature women, and then try watching the teens. After that, try to watch same sex love scenes. You could even try watching niche sexes, like food sex, bodybuilders, feet fetish, and others. And if you are done with them all, watch the world having sex, or better yet, watch how the world do sex. Asians sex may be different with European sex, Indian sex may differ from Japanese sex, etc. There are a lot of choices of sex scenes to watch. Buy one online and enjoy not just havi ng sex with your wife, but give her the best sex ever.

But let me entice your sex appetite more. The site adultfilmdvds gives more than free shipping. When you order two, the third is free, with free shipping. Do not worry much on the packaging. Your officemates would not know you ordered one. They package their stuff discretely. Why not try to order and experience same day shipping. Use your credit card to order now. Do not wait until your marriage will be broken. There are lot of them I know who left their sex life die a natural death. It is now time to liven and entice your sex life a bit. Bi-sexual? No problem. They have it all. Try to download now and save lots and lots of money. Want your porno on your mobile phone? Not a problem at all. download a video right now and carry it with you all along. Who knows, it will help you a lot when you need it the most. Try now, log on to adultfilmsdvd and experience the best of porn dvds.

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Fabulous Indian Trekking Event

Trekking in India is the best way to comprehend India, a land of beauty and contrasts. The gorgeous valleys and mountains of India offer easy, moderate and arduous trek which one can select as per their abilities to deal with the difficulties. No matter where you go for your eventual trekking experience, adventure India is there to overwhelm your senses with its untamed beauty of cliffs and villages. On your trekking experience the traditional cusine will seduce your taste buds and inspire you to celebrate the bounty and goodness of life itself. The unsurpassed beauty of India with ancient culture, hearty cusine and fresh mountain air offer absolute solitude and grandeur to the travelers.

There are many tour operators who can customize your tour trekking packages keeping your interest in mind and aims to offer you the true essence of India. The mighty Himalayas offer breathtaking enthralling trekking routes that are sure to leave you speechless. Experience limitless possibilities with our trekking tour package, book holidays with trekking events in India as we will make sure that you experience the most thrilling vacation ever. With our trekking tour packages engulf the rugged beauty of lofty mountains romancing the shimmering waterfalls cascading down in glee and much more.

On your Trekking in India tour you can opt for trekking to Leh and Ladakh, Trekking In Sikkim, trekking in Gharwal Himalayas and many more. Our treks in Himalayas range from easy adventures for the family to strenuous ones for those seeking high adventure trips. In fact we have something for everyone so it's time to pack your bags and put on your sports shoes and get going on trekking to India. Himalayan foothills are just ideal for trekking tours, offering energetic outdoor people a different and exciting option for holiday.

So if you are totally on your trekking tour in India than you can select from wide range of trekking options offered by Indian trekking event. The trekking season in India runs between April and November, but some routes are only open foe couple of months, each year. With the trekking packages offered by trekking event one can take back memories which you will cherish all your life. In fact through our trekking packages even foreign travelers can get to know the life style of the locals and thus create unity. So get ready to explore Indian trekking event and create lifetime memories.

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Special & Differential Treatment in World Trade Organization

The provisions include, things like, longer time periods for implementing Agreements, commitments or measures to increase trading opportunities for developing countries.[1] Such provisions are referred to as special and differential treatment provisions.

The special provisions of the WTO include: Relaxation of time periods for implementing Agreements and commitments, Specific measures to increase and promote the trade of developing countries, provisions making it mandatory for all the WTO members to safeguard the trade interests of developing countries, possible support to help the developing countries in building the infrastructure for WTO work, handling disputes, and implementing technical standards, and provisions related to Least-Developed country (LDC) Members.[2]

While there are 6 billion people in this world today, the wealthy part of the world, the developed world, contains no more than 15% of the worlds population. The rest of the world which falls under brackets such as less developed countries or least developed countries or alternatively, developing countries or under-developed countries, and comprises of 85% of the worlds population, existing in a state of near minimum subsistence. The world therefore faces a divide known as the developmental gap which refers to the discrepancy between the living standards of these wealthy and developed countries on one hand, and less developed countries with relatively poorer economies on the other hand. Interestingly, it has been observed in the recent past that the standards of living in the developed world keep getting better while the poorest of countries struggle to make any progress; further widening this development gap.)[3] This results in an even more unequal world with unequal means of livelihood.

However, while there are developed economies which include some of the wealthiest countries of the world and other economies which have struggled to grow, most countries fall in the category of the developing world with economies in constant growth, at however differential rates, yet full of promise to grow further. It has been observed by economists that the reason behind the success of under-developed economies robust growth has been their success in implementing outward-oriented reforms that have enabled them to integrate rapidly into the global economic and financial system.[4]

It is an acceptable fact that today no developing country can play a significant role in the global trading system without the presence of trans-national countries within its borders. It has also been observed that the model that promises maximum returns to these developing economies is not one of extreme protectionism but a model that balances protection and liberalization. This does not mean that protectionism as a policy has failed miserably, but in turn highlights the importance of liberalization with planned discrimination and safeguards to ensure the development of local industries. The basic intention is to help the developing country in question to integrate with the global economy and let it benefit from whatever it is that is a distinctive characteristic of that country vis--vis its competitors. Once the country has a firm footing in the international market, the country is able to make use of such stability and guide itself to a future of growth and let its econom y flourish.

Approximately two-thirds of the 150 member states that constitute the World Trade Organization (WTO) are developing countries. The number of developing countries in the WTO is ever increasing and so is their participation. Considering the vast majority, it comes as no surprise that the interests of these developing countries lie at the core of the organizations policies. [5]

Now the question arises, what exactly are developing countries, and who makes the distinction between a developed and a developing country? Moreover, what purpose does this distinction serve? While there is no universally accepted definition of a developing country, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the United Nations use different yardsticks to determine the development status of a country. There is, however, no official list of developing countries. The practice has been that such status is self determined.[6] The member countries of the WTO announce their own status at the WTO as either developing or developed. However, this status can be challenged by other member countries as there are several benefits and rights that are reserved at the WTO for developing countries. These benefits may include longer transitional periods before a developing country may be expected to comply with global norms, or the provision of technical assistance to developing count ries which may not be provided to developed nations. [7]

Such are the needs of a developing country; leniency and planned protection in order to ensure that the developing economy can compete internationally with other countries, some of them developed economies, and establish a firm foundation in this global economy and as a result tread the path of growth and economic success.

Without special provisions for such economies the developed world, which already dominates international trade, can easily exploit a poorer nation owing to a better bargaining position and better sustainability of economy. Keeping this mind, the researcher thus concludes that special provisions have to be made for the developing countries and the least developed countries to enable them to a platform which gives them better access to international markets while protecting their own interests. This also safeguards them from harsh policies and treaties with better off nations which might favor the rich countries who dominate world trade and its governing organizations and are able to heavily influence policy decisions at international forums. Such policies or treaties might otherwise have the tendency to significantly deter economic growth of developing countries due to the sensitive nature of their economies. Moreover, incentives and benefits provided to these countries can i n fact boost this economic growth further.

The standard development arguments for special and differential treatment are two fold. First , it is argued, it is developmentally undesirable for some countries to follow policies that are sensible for others. The agreement on agriculture for example, has a core objective the removal of the substantial OECD distortions that have led to higher agricultural output that can be justified economically.[8]

The other argument is that parts of the new trade agenda are developmentally desirable, but the opportunity cost of implementation at this stage is too high.[9]This is because it is expensive in terms of finance, human resources, or governmental/judicial attention. At the same time, the cost to the world trade system of non implementation is trivial (because the countrys share of relevant trade is so miniscule.[10]

To grasp the need for special and differential treatment , the researcher has taken into consideration the need for such treatment with respect to international trade. International trade plays a significant role in the development of a countrys economy and engines its economic growth. It is this international trade that has led to major economic advancement over the past five decades or so, and the process of globalization and the increased accessibility of markets have only aided this process. We live in a world of specialization and inter-dependence. Every country seeks to maximize their profits by playing to their strengths and marketing their products and services in which they hold an edge over their competitors. International trade has therefore become an/ indisputable fact and the dilemma today is not whether to trade or not, but instead how to trade. [11]

As a consequence of a liberal outlook and ready access to global markets, nations are able to compete and market their products globally by increasing their economic efficiency to meet their aim of accumulation of wealth. It cannot be denied that there exists an underlying link between trade and development. It is widely believed that while trade may cause increased inequalities, in the long run trade forms an important source of income and is useful in reducing poverty. [12] Therefore, it has been globally understood that trade is an essential part of a wider process of a countrys development.

It has been recognized worldwide that trade is an essential contributor to a countrys national income and has a major role to play in its development. This is the reason why developing countries are offered better trading opportunities to help them integrate with the international trade.

While discussing the special and differential treatment of third world countries , it becomes quintessential to mention the india-ec case. In april 2004, the wto appellate body issued a report which allowed a developed country to apply different tariffs to products originating in different generalized system of preferences (GSP) beneficiaries, it was subject to the said requirement that identical tariff is applied to the products of all similarly situated developing country members with the development, financial and trade needs to which the differential tariff treatment is intended to respond. India brought forward this case against the European Communities challenging their discriminatory tariff preferences.[13]

Research Questions. What are the various provisions for special and differential treatment in the WTO? 2. What are the reasons for special and differential treatment in the WTO? 3. What does the India-EC case deal with?

Various Provisions for Special & Differential Treatment in the WTO. The WTO Secretariat has made several compilations of the special and differential provisions and their use.

The ambit of special and differential treatment consists of 145 specific provisions spread across the different Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods; the General Agreement on Trade in Services; The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property; the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes; and various Ministerial Decisions. Of the 145 provisions, 107 were adopted at the conclusion of the Uruguay Round, and 22 apply to leastdeveloped country Members only. [14] The said provisions referred to : actions developing countries might undertake via exemptions from disciplines otherwise applying to the membership generally; exemptions from commitments otherwise applying to Members in general; a comparatively low level of commitment for the developing countries as compared to the developed countries and membership in general.

The phases of development of the special treatment of the third world countries can be studied in the form of four phases. The first phase starts from the forming of the GATT in 1948 till the beginning of the Tokyo Round in 1973. The second phase refers to the Tokyo Round itself, from 1973 to 1979. The third phase dates from the end of the Tokyo Round to the end of the Uruguay Round, that is from 1979 to 1995. The fourth phase starts from the end of the Uruguay Round until the present.[15] The analysis that follows distinguishes five arguments that have been advanced for Special &Differential treatment. The five categories are stated as follows: 1. Special and differential treatment is an acquired political right. 2. Developing countries ought to enjoy privileged access to the markets of their trading partners, particularly the developed countries. 3. Developing countries ought to have the right to restrict imports to a greater degree than developed countries 4. Developing countries ought to be allowed additional freedom in order to subsidize exports. 5. Developing countries ought to be allowed flexibility in lieu of the application of certain WTO rules, or in order to postpone the application of rules as stated by WTO.[16]

Chapter-2Reasons For Special And Differential Treatment In The WTO The concept of this differential treatment stems from the understanding that many policies that may be implemented with the focus on a developed economy could possibly have ill effects on a poorer economy. Policies which might make sense for one nation might not have the same consequences in another economy. Or in other words, different economies may have different characteristics and needs. For example, a policy which might be initiated to counter the excessive subsidies in rich countries, say in the agriculture sector, can easily restrict the support that could be provided to a poor country for its agriculture and thereby have unwanted results. To elaborate the example, the Agreement on Agriculture has provisions for the removal of certain subsidies which had led to higher agricultural output that that could be justified economically and therefore the agreement focused, as one of its core objectives, on the removal of these subsidies. But the case with developing and least developed countries is such that they suffer from neglect and have been unable to benefit as much from these subsidies. These poor economies still have lower agricultural production than it should be[17] If instruments to remove the subsidies were to be introduced, their economies would further suffer.

Therefore, such policies must bear in mind the sensitive nature of the economies that the policy is likely to affect. This can be done by categorizing the countries, as done under the WTO, into developed and developing economies and implementing these policies according to the needs of the country and the expected consequences of the policy.

But the concept of such special and differential treatment has faced certain criticism as well. This is predominantly based on the root of this concept. Such leniency is justified on the basis that certain laws applicable to all nations may have an element of exploitation and anti-development. By relaxing such laws when the country under question is a developing country, unfair treatment is doled out to other countries which do not have the privileged tag of being developing. There also exists a lapse in the system vis--vis the criteria that a country must meet in order to be eligible for privileges. As per the current system, a country may decide its own status as either developing or developed. This may lead to paradoxical situations where a country which may not require certain privileges may be put at a discriminatory advantage over other countries by the grant of these privileges. Moreover, if there are laws which have the tendency of being exploitive or harsh, they sho uld be removed as a whole. Furthermore, there needs to be a clear understanding of the distinction between laws which may be negotiable and those which must be binding on all the countries[18]

While the weaknesses in the capacities of developing countries forms the basic reason for the continuous of such differential treatment, such benefits should only be made available to the countries which are low income countries and those which may need help to become integrated into the international trade system, or in other words, which are in dire need for trade opportunities. [19]

This results in a paradoxical situation. What about those nations which may fall under the tag of developing countries, but in effect be high-income nations? Unless some differentiation is made between these countries, it is not possible to frame an efficient and fair system of special and differential treatment.

Although the introduction of special provisions for developing countries in the WTO policies would benefit the developing countries without affecting the developed countries too much, the counter argument to this lenient treatment is that the opportunity cost that the implementation of these provisions pose to other nations. Many countries are of the opinion that while developmentally these might be desirable, but the opportunity cost to the trade system is massive as compared to the insignificant contribution some of these least developed and developing countries would make to the international trading system. If one was to subscribe to this view, then it would be of more desirable outcome to introduce these provisions at a later stage when the country is in a position to contribute to the international trade system more significantly in return and in the meantime find better avenues which promise greater returns with regard to the attention, finance and human resources tha t are required for implementation of the special benefits. [20]

Chapter-3India EC Case Since the inception of the WTO in 1995, India has been involved in 33 disputes at the WTO. It has initiated cased against other countries 16 times and has faced complaints against itself 17 times. India is amongst the most frequent users of the WTO dispute resolution system from among the developing country members. Amongst the more recent disputes, India was involved in a dispute with the EU where it contested the tariff concessions granted by the members of the European Communities (EC) to twelve developing countries under its Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). The ground for this dispute was Indias belief that under the WTO structure, discrimination could only be made in favor of least developed and developing countries. Contrary to this, in December 2001, the EC had launched its GSP scheme which had provisions for five different preferential tariff preferences. The effect of this arrangement was that twelve countries received greater tariff reductions as compared t o countries like India which created undue difficulties for Indias exports to the EC and took away the benefits given to India under the most favored nation policy. [21]

Conclusion Special and Differential Treatment at the WTO: It is the privileged treatment offered to developing nations at the WTO based on the understanding that needs of these countries are substantially different from those of developed nations. This principle allows a certain degree of discrimination in favor of developing countries.

The India-EU Dispute: In India contested the European Communities Generalized System of Preferences wherein distinction was made between beneficiary countries and twelve countries were granted greater tariff concessions owing to the five different preferential tariff preferences.

The researcher concludes the draft with the mentioning of the relevance of the special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries. It is essential for these countries to receive such benefits as their resources and services are not comparable to developed countries and such treatment provides an impetus to such countries to produce and prosper.

Indian

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Special Economic Zone: A Boon For Indian Economy

It is a trade capacity development tool, with a goal to promote rapid economic growth by using tax and business incentives to attract foreign investment and technology. By offering privileged terms, Special Economic Zones attract investment and foreign exchange, spur employment and boost the development of improved technologies and infrastructure.

In India, Special Economic Zones are being established in an attempt to deal with infrastructural deficiencies, procedural complexities, bureaucratic hassles and barriers raised by monetary, trade, fiscal, taxation, tariff and labour policies. Since country-wide development of the infrastructure is expensive and implementation of structural reforms would require time, ( Special Economic Zones/Export Processing Zones) are being established as industrial enclaves for expediting the process of industrialization.

One of the earliest and most famous Special Economic Zone was founded by the government of the People's Republic of China under Deng Xiaoping in the early 1980s.

Government of India in April 2000 announced the introduction of Special Economic Zones policy in the country. As of 2007, more than 500 Special Economic Zones have been proposed, 220 of which have already been created. This has raised the concern of the World Bank, which questions the sustainability of such a large number of Special Economic Zones.

Tracing Indian economic reforms In India several attempts have been made to liberalize the system of economic management. In 1980s, the Indian Government focused on reorganizing low-efficient state-run enterprises and partial disinvestment, relaxing the control on private enterprises and foreign capital, introducing competitive mechanisms, reducing protection for domestic industries, promoting and importing advanced technological equipment from abroad etc.

In 1991, the reformed trade and industrial policy eliminated licensing requirements for private domestic and foreign investment in certain industries and relaxed the restrictions under the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act on expansion, diversification, mergers and acquisitions by large firms and industrial houses. Special Economic Zones came in pursuance of this export led growth strategy.

Special Economic Zones were announced by the Government of India in April 2000 as a part of the Export-Import policy of India. The government realized the need to enhance foreign investment, promote exports from the country and at the same time provide a level playing to the domestic enterprises, while ensuring manufacturers to be competitive globally.

The Special Economic Zones as announced by the Government of India in 2000 were deemed to be foreign territory for the purposes of trade operations, duties and tariffs. These zones were to provide an internationally competitive and hassle free environment for exports. Units were allowed be set up in Special Economic Zone for manufacture of goods and rendering of services. All import/export operations of the Special Economic Zone units were on self-certification basis. Anything could be imported duty free but sales in the Domestic Tariff Area by Special Economic Zone units were subject to payment of full Custom Duty and as per import policy in force. Further Offshore banking units were being allowed to be set up in the Special Economic Zones. The policy provided for setting up of Special Economic Zones in the public, private, joint sector or by State Governments.

On 31st August 2004 the Department of Commerce announced the Foreign Trade Policy 2004-2009 to create an appropriate institutional framework and policy environment for facilitation and growth of external trade. The basic objective of this policy was to double India's share of global merchandise trade by 2009 and make exports an effective instrument of economic growth and employment generation. The Special Economic Zone Act, 2005 and the Special Economic Zone Rules, 2006 were introduced under this policy, to regulate and promote the development of these industrial enclaves.

The Act designated the Special Economic Zones a duty free enclave to be treated as foreign territory only for trade operations and duties and tariffs. Under the Act, no license is required for import and no routine examination is to be conducted by the custom authorities of the export/import cargo. To aid backward and forward integration of the economy, the Act provides exemptions to Special Economic Zone units and Special Economic Zone developers from all indirect taxes, including basic customs duty, countervailing duty, education cess, and direct taxes while at the same time domestic sales are subject to full customs duty and import policy in force. The Act provided the freedom to subcontract. It also permitted manufacturing, trading and service activities in the Special Economic Zones.

India and China : Whether on a Level Platform Success stories of large and small developing countries can be explained by the growth of world trade and opening up of these economies with market based deregulation. But from any in-depth scrutiny one finds that the reform package under the broad heading of "liberalization" is very different from country to country. There is no standard recipe of a "reform package". A lot of factors influence the performance of Special Economic Zones in a country e.g. economic history, location, industries, state policy etc. Since India has adopted the idea of the special economic zones from China it becomes pertinent to study the history of economic development in India and China.

China's success can be ascribed largely because of its effective population control. In the pre-reform days, both in China and India top priority was given to equity, removing poverty and increasing the social aspects of standards of living. This, however, was attempted in China under a total state-controlled economy and in India with the public sector playing a dominant role along with the market forces. Both the economies adopted a strategy of import substitution and heavy industry growth. China over time, realized that maintaining high standards of living becomes difficult unless efficiency in the use of resources is increased. Its attempt to maintain equity through forced saving and administered directives resulted in social unrest, which came to a breaking point after the controversial Cultural Revolution. The key objective of present reform in China is to bring incentives back in the economy by increasing the role of the market with minimum changes in their political i nstitutions. This is defined in China as an experiment in a socialistic market economy.

In India, heavy import substitution lead to increased inefficiency in production and generation of surplus for maintaining the tempo of equity measures as a result social development became impossible. This led to heavy borrowing, culminating in a balance of payments crisis. To meet the crisis, this new economic policy in India was initiated.

China's success in attracting foreign direct investment and becoming one of the top exporting countries of the world hinged on the careful implementation of its Special Economic Zone policy. Size, location, flexible labour laws and stable policies were the factors primarily responsible for making Chinese Special Economic Zones attractive to foreign investors. In India, the fiscal concessions being offered to developers and units are the primary driving force.

Chinese government started building Special Economic Zones way back in 1979. The idea behind the Special Economic Zones was to experiment with liberal policies in certain ear-marked regions while insulating the rest of the economy from their influence. The government identified huge tracts of land, near the coastal region, and started building mega cities with all required infrastructure. Stringent labour laws applicable in China were relaxed in these regions and foreign investment was encouraged by offering concessions and promising of stability.

In 1980 four Special Economic Zones namely, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou and Xiamen were opened up. In 1984, fourteen coastal cities were opened up as a further step. In 1985, three delta areas along the Yangtze River and Pearl River and in the southern part of Fujian province as well as several other places were opened up. In the following years, Hainan Island, Pudong New Area in Shanghai, five big cities along the Yangtze River, eighteen provincial capitals and a part of inland and border cities were opened up. These zones were created initially as experimental stations to adjust and watch their operations vis--vis open market interactions.

Though India had a head-start in the direction by building its first export processing zone in 1969 with certain minimum infrastructure and fiscal sops, it could not muster enough political will to build full-fledged Special Economic Zones with foreign territory status in the matters of international trade till the turn of the century. As opposed to five mega Special Economic Zones built by the Chinese government (the largest being Shenzhen built over 49,500 hectares), India opened its doors to private players and allowed sector-specific Special Economic Zones to develop on just 10 hectares of land. As a result, more than 500 Special Economic Zones have been proposed, 220 of which have already been created. The economies of scale, which seems to have worked so well in China by reducing production costs, may not have the same effect in the Indian Special Economic Zone s.

In China, the government chose the location for Special Economic Zone s with a lot of thought with all five located near the coastal region. This made it easier for the Special Economic Zone units to export their products and import inputs. In India, Special Economic Zones are being built all over the country, wherever land can be acquired by the developers. This has also led to allegations of land-grabbing and conversion of productive agricultural land by developers. As a result, Centre has made it mandatory that all proposals should have a certificate from the state governments notifying that the land being used is non-agricultural for at least 90%.

Flexibility in labour laws, which played an important role in attracting foreign investors, is absent in the Indian Special Economic Zones. This is one of the prices India has to pay for the advantages of a federal democratic government. India has, however, tried to make up for all the disadvantages by offering attractive fiscal sops. Tax holidays for Special Economic Zones in India are longer and steeper than those given by China. This had given rise to some dissent from the finance ministry which had complained that the fiscal loss would be immense. In fact the scheme has generated a difference of opinion between the Finance and Commerce Ministries. While the former is voicing its concerns about possible revenue loss from the tax privileges for the Special Economic Zones, the latter is stoutly defending the policy with statistics suggesting minimal losses and highlighting eventual gains in terms of employment and revenues

Reserve Bank of India has also expressed its concerns about the revenue losses and the uneven pattern of development. Reserve Bank of India insisted on factoring the revenue implications of the taxation benefits. The revenue loss for the Government in providing incentives may be justified only if the Special Economic Zone units ensure forward and backward linkages with the domestic economy. Also, as resources are being diverted from the less developed, growth will not be uniform.

One of the most basic difference between the Special Economic Zone model adopted in China and India is that the Chinese Special Economic Zone initiative is government driven, whereas Indian Special Economic Zones are driven by private sector . In China , the State acquires the land and develops the required infrastructure, while private enterprises are invited to set up units. Under such a system, land continues to be under the ownership of the State. In India, however, private entities are being involved in developing the Special Economic Zone infrastructure. As a result, Land is being acquired by the State and handed over to private developers.

Current Controversy The Economic Survey of 2006-07 highlighted the fact that Special Economic Zone s are testing grounds for the implementation of liberal market economy principles. At the same the survey emphasized on some apprehensions against the Special Economic Zones: Generation of little new activity as there may be relocation of industries to take advantage of tax concessions, Revenue loss, Large-scale land acquisition by the developers, may lead to displacement of farmers with meager compensation, Acquisition of prime agricultural land, having serious implications for food security, Misuse of land by the developers for real estate and Uneven growth aggravating regional inequalities.

The Survey also mentioned that many of these apprehensions, however, could be addressed through appropriate policies and safeguards. A major controversy surrounding the implementation of the Special Economic Zone scheme has been the ruthless manner adopted for acquiring land. News reports highlighted protests across the country against acquisition of lands for the purpose of establishing Special Economic Zones. The "SEZ No More" campaign gained momentum after the bloody chapter in Nandigram.

Since, developing Special Economic Zones involves massive displacement of farmers, it is essential that a systematic approach should be followed for ensuring balance of interests. Consequently, state governments have been advised that in land acquisition for Special Economic Zones, first priority should be for acquisition of waste and barren land and if necessary single crop agricultural land. If perforce a portion of double-cropped agricultural land has to be acquired to meet the minimum area requirements, especially for multi-product Special Economic Zone, the same should not exceed 10 % of the total land required for the Special Economic Zone

The government has also announced the new National Policy on Rehabilitation and Resettlement 2007. This policy would provide land-for-land compensation for acquisition of land for development purposes, including Special Economic Zones, and employment to at least one person from each affected family. A National Rehabilitation Commission would be set up by the Central Government, which would be duly empowered to exercise independent oversight over the rehabilitation and resettlement of the affected families. Further, wage employment would be provided to the willing affected persons in the construction work in the project. The policy also ensures housing benefits including houses to the landless affected families in both rural and urban areas.

Adequate provisions have been made for financial support to the affected families for construction of cattle sheds, shops, working sheds; transportation costs, temporary and transitional accommodation, comprehensive infrastructural facilities and amenities in the resettlement area including education, health care, drinking water, roads, electricity, sanitation, religious activities, cattle grazing, and other community resources.

The benefits expressed in monetary terms have been linked to the Consumer Price Index, and the same shall also be revised suitably at appropriate intervals. Special provision has been made for providing life-time monthly pension to the vulnerable persons, such as the disabled, destitute, orphans, widows, unmarried girls, abandoned women, or persons above 50 years of age (who are not provided or cannot immediately be provided with alternative livelihood).

A strong grievance redressal mechanism has been prescribed, which includes standing R&R Committees at the district level, R&R Committees at the project level, and an Ombudsman duly empowered in this regard. The R&R Committees shall have representatives from the affected families including women, voluntary organizations, Panchayats, local elected representatives, etc. Provision has also been made for post-implementation social audits of the rehabilitation and resettlement schemes and plans.

For effective monitoring of the progress of implementation of R&R plans, provisions have been made for a National Monitoring Committee, a National Monitoring Cell, mandatory information sharing by the States and Union Territories with the National Monitoring Cell, and Oversight Committees in the Ministries/Departments concerned for each major project.

For ensuring transparency, provision has been made for mandatory dissemination of information on displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement, with names of the affected persons and details of the rehabilitation packages. Such information shall be placed in the public domain on the Internet as well as shared with the concerned Gram Sabhas and Panchayats by the project authorities. This policy aims at striking a balance between the need for land for development purposes and protecting the interests of land owners and other displaced people.

Conclusion A study conducted by Aradhna Aggarwal on the Impact of Special Economic Zones on Employment, Poverty and Human Development indicated, that Employment generation, both direct and indirect, has thus far been the most important channel, through which Special Economic Zones have impacted on human development and poverty reduction in India. However, the role of Special Economic Zone s in human capital formation and as an engine for promoting new knowledge, technologies and innovations through technology transfers and technology creation appears to be relatively limited. With new generation Special Economic Zones emerging, the scope of human capital formation and technology upgrading effects will widen. It is therefore important for the government to play a pro active role in strengthening these effects.

For the contribution of Special Economic Zones to various aspects of human development to be realized, it is important to forge linkages between the domestic economy and Special Economic Zones. Systematic efforts need to be made to help zone units forge links with the outside units. Also, the effects of Special Economic Zones are contingent upon the success of these zones in attracting investment, in particular, Foreign Direct Investment. A comprehensive policy framework is required to attain this. The government has to ensure that strategies are developed in a timely manner to strengthen the opportunities that are likely to emerge, protect interests of the Special Economic Zones workers, and forge linkages between Special Economic Zones and the domestic economy. Such a regulated and monitored approach is the only means of attaining the actual potential of these Special Economic Zones.

Indian

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Special & Differential Treatment in World Trade Organization

The provisions include, things like, longer time periods for implementing Agreements, commitments or measures to increase trading opportunities for developing countries.[1] Such provisions are referred to as special and differential treatment provisions.

The special provisions of the WTO include: Relaxation of time periods for implementing Agreements and commitments, Specific measures to increase and promote the trade of developing countries, provisions making it mandatory for all the WTO members to safeguard the trade interests of developing countries, possible support to help the developing countries in building the infrastructure for WTO work, handling disputes, and implementing technical standards, and provisions related to Least-Developed country (LDC) Members.[2]

While there are 6 billion people in this world today, the wealthy part of the world, the developed world, contains no more than 15% of the worlds population. The rest of the world which falls under brackets such as less developed countries or least developed countries or alternatively, developing countries or under-developed countries, and comprises of 85% of the worlds population, existing in a state of near minimum subsistence. The world therefore faces a divide known as the developmental gap which refers to the discrepancy between the living standards of these wealthy and developed countries on one hand, and less developed countries with relatively poorer economies on the other hand. Interestingly, it has been observed in the recent past that the standards of living in the developed world keep getting better while the poorest of countries struggle to make any progress; further widening this development gap.)[3] This results in an even more unequal world with unequal means of livelihood.

However, while there are developed economies which include some of the wealthiest countries of the world and other economies which have struggled to grow, most countries fall in the category of the developing world with economies in constant growth, at however differential rates, yet full of promise to grow further. It has been observed by economists that the reason behind the success of under-developed economies robust growth has been their success in implementing outward-oriented reforms that have enabled them to integrate rapidly into the global economic and financial system.[4]

It is an acceptable fact that today no developing country can play a significant role in the global trading system without the presence of trans-national countries within its borders. It has also been observed that the model that promises maximum returns to these developing economies is not one of extreme protectionism but a model that balances protection and liberalization. This does not mean that protectionism as a policy has failed miserably, but in turn highlights the importance of liberalization with planned discrimination and safeguards to ensure the development of local industries. The basic intention is to help the developing country in question to integrate with the global economy and let it benefit from whatever it is that is a distinctive characteristic of that country vis--vis its competitors. Once the country has a firm footing in the international market, the country is able to make use of such stability and guide itself to a future of growth and let its econom y flourish.

Approximately two-thirds of the 150 member states that constitute the World Trade Organization (WTO) are developing countries. The number of developing countries in the WTO is ever increasing and so is their participation. Considering the vast majority, it comes as no surprise that the interests of these developing countries lie at the core of the organizations policies. [5]

Now the question arises, what exactly are developing countries, and who makes the distinction between a developed and a developing country? Moreover, what purpose does this distinction serve? While there is no universally accepted definition of a developing country, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the United Nations use different yardsticks to determine the development status of a country. There is, however, no official list of developing countries. The practice has been that such status is self determined.[6] The member countries of the WTO announce their own status at the WTO as either developing or developed. However, this status can be challenged by other member countries as there are several benefits and rights that are reserved at the WTO for developing countries. These benefits may include longer transitional periods before a developing country may be expected to comply with global norms, or the provision of technical assistance to developing count ries which may not be provided to developed nations. [7]

Such are the needs of a developing country; leniency and planned protection in order to ensure that the developing economy can compete internationally with other countries, some of them developed economies, and establish a firm foundation in this global economy and as a result tread the path of growth and economic success.

Without special provisions for such economies the developed world, which already dominates international trade, can easily exploit a poorer nation owing to a better bargaining position and better sustainability of economy. Keeping this mind, the researcher thus concludes that special provisions have to be made for the developing countries and the least developed countries to enable them to a platform which gives them better access to international markets while protecting their own interests. This also safeguards them from harsh policies and treaties with better off nations which might favor the rich countries who dominate world trade and its governing organizations and are able to heavily influence policy decisions at international forums. Such policies or treaties might otherwise have the tendency to significantly deter economic growth of developing countries due to the sensitive nature of their economies. Moreover, incentives and benefits provided to these countries can i n fact boost this economic growth further.

The standard development arguments for special and differential treatment are two fold. First , it is argued, it is developmentally undesirable for some countries to follow policies that are sensible for others. The agreement on agriculture for example, has a core objective the removal of the substantial OECD distortions that have led to higher agricultural output that can be justified economically.[8]

The other argument is that parts of the new trade agenda are developmentally desirable, but the opportunity cost of implementation at this stage is too high.[9]This is because it is expensive in terms of finance, human resources, or governmental/judicial attention. At the same time, the cost to the world trade system of non implementation is trivial (because the countrys share of relevant trade is so miniscule.[10]

To grasp the need for special and differential treatment , the researcher has taken into consideration the need for such treatment with respect to international trade. International trade plays a significant role in the development of a countrys economy and engines its economic growth. It is this international trade that has led to major economic advancement over the past five decades or so, and the process of globalization and the increased accessibility of markets have only aided this process. We live in a world of specialization and inter-dependence. Every country seeks to maximize their profits by playing to their strengths and marketing their products and services in which they hold an edge over their competitors. International trade has therefore become an/ indisputable fact and the dilemma today is not whether to trade or not, but instead how to trade. [11]

As a consequence of a liberal outlook and ready access to global markets, nations are able to compete and market their products globally by increasing their economic efficiency to meet their aim of accumulation of wealth. It cannot be denied that there exists an underlying link between trade and development. It is widely believed that while trade may cause increased inequalities, in the long run trade forms an important source of income and is useful in reducing poverty. [12] Therefore, it has been globally understood that trade is an essential part of a wider process of a countrys development.

It has been recognized worldwide that trade is an essential contributor to a countrys national income and has a major role to play in its development. This is the reason why developing countries are offered better trading opportunities to help them integrate with the international trade.

While discussing the special and differential treatment of third world countries , it becomes quintessential to mention the india-ec case. In april 2004, the wto appellate body issued a report which allowed a developed country to apply different tariffs to products originating in different generalized system of preferences (GSP) beneficiaries, it was subject to the said requirement that identical tariff is applied to the products of all similarly situated developing country members with the development, financial and trade needs to which the differential tariff treatment is intended to respond. India brought forward this case against the European Communities challenging their discriminatory tariff preferences.[13]

Research Questions. What are the various provisions for special and differential treatment in the WTO? 2. What are the reasons for special and differential treatment in the WTO? 3. What does the India-EC case deal with?

Various Provisions for Special & Differential Treatment in the WTO. The WTO Secretariat has made several compilations of the special and differential provisions and their use.

The ambit of special and differential treatment consists of 145 specific provisions spread across the different Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods; the General Agreement on Trade in Services; The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property; the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes; and various Ministerial Decisions. Of the 145 provisions, 107 were adopted at the conclusion of the Uruguay Round, and 22 apply to leastdeveloped country Members only. [14] The said provisions referred to : actions developing countries might undertake via exemptions from disciplines otherwise applying to the membership generally; exemptions from commitments otherwise applying to Members in general; a comparatively low level of commitment for the developing countries as compared to the developed countries and membership in general.

The phases of development of the special treatment of the third world countries can be studied in the form of four phases. The first phase starts from the forming of the GATT in 1948 till the beginning of the Tokyo Round in 1973. The second phase refers to the Tokyo Round itself, from 1973 to 1979. The third phase dates from the end of the Tokyo Round to the end of the Uruguay Round, that is from 1979 to 1995. The fourth phase starts from the end of the Uruguay Round until the present.[15] The analysis that follows distinguishes five arguments that have been advanced for Special &Differential treatment. The five categories are stated as follows: 1. Special and differential treatment is an acquired political right. 2. Developing countries ought to enjoy privileged access to the markets of their trading partners, particularly the developed countries. 3. Developing countries ought to have the right to restrict imports to a greater degree than developed countries 4. Developing countries ought to be allowed additional freedom in order to subsidize exports. 5. Developing countries ought to be allowed flexibility in lieu of the application of certain WTO rules, or in order to postpone the application of rules as stated by WTO.[16]

Chapter-2Reasons For Special And Differential Treatment In The WTO The concept of this differential treatment stems from the understanding that many policies that may be implemented with the focus on a developed economy could possibly have ill effects on a poorer economy. Policies which might make sense for one nation might not have the same consequences in another economy. Or in other words, different economies may have different characteristics and needs. For example, a policy which might be initiated to counter the excessive subsidies in rich countries, say in the agriculture sector, can easily restrict the support that could be provided to a poor country for its agriculture and thereby have unwanted results. To elaborate the example, the Agreement on Agriculture has provisions for the removal of certain subsidies which had led to higher agricultural output that that could be justified economically and therefore the agreement focused, as one of its core objectives, on the removal of these subsidies. But the case with developing and least developed countries is such that they suffer from neglect and have been unable to benefit as much from these subsidies. These poor economies still have lower agricultural production than it should be[17] If instruments to remove the subsidies were to be introduced, their economies would further suffer.

Therefore, such policies must bear in mind the sensitive nature of the economies that the policy is likely to affect. This can be done by categorizing the countries, as done under the WTO, into developed and developing economies and implementing these policies according to the needs of the country and the expected consequences of the policy.

But the concept of such special and differential treatment has faced certain criticism as well. This is predominantly based on the root of this concept. Such leniency is justified on the basis that certain laws applicable to all nations may have an element of exploitation and anti-development. By relaxing such laws when the country under question is a developing country, unfair treatment is doled out to other countries which do not have the privileged tag of being developing. There also exists a lapse in the system vis--vis the criteria that a country must meet in order to be eligible for privileges. As per the current system, a country may decide its own status as either developing or developed. This may lead to paradoxical situations where a country which may not require certain privileges may be put at a discriminatory advantage over other countries by the grant of these privileges. Moreover, if there are laws which have the tendency of being exploitive or harsh, they sho uld be removed as a whole. Furthermore, there needs to be a clear understanding of the distinction between laws which may be negotiable and those which must be binding on all the countries[18]

While the weaknesses in the capacities of developing countries forms the basic reason for the continuous of such differential treatment, such benefits should only be made available to the countries which are low income countries and those which may need help to become integrated into the international trade system, or in other words, which are in dire need for trade opportunities. [19]

This results in a paradoxical situation. What about those nations which may fall under the tag of developing countries, but in effect be high-income nations? Unless some differentiation is made between these countries, it is not possible to frame an efficient and fair system of special and differential treatment.

Although the introduction of special provisions for developing countries in the WTO policies would benefit the developing countries without affecting the developed countries too much, the counter argument to this lenient treatment is that the opportunity cost that the implementation of these provisions pose to other nations. Many countries are of the opinion that while developmentally these might be desirable, but the opportunity cost to the trade system is massive as compared to the insignificant contribution some of these least developed and developing countries would make to the international trading system. If one was to subscribe to this view, then it would be of more desirable outcome to introduce these provisions at a later stage when the country is in a position to contribute to the international trade system more significantly in return and in the meantime find better avenues which promise greater returns with regard to the attention, finance and human resources tha t are required for implementation of the special benefits. [20]

Chapter-3India EC Case Since the inception of the WTO in 1995, India has been involved in 33 disputes at the WTO. It has initiated cased against other countries 16 times and has faced complaints against itself 17 times. India is amongst the most frequent users of the WTO dispute resolution system from among the developing country members. Amongst the more recent disputes, India was involved in a dispute with the EU where it contested the tariff concessions granted by the members of the European Communities (EC) to twelve developing countries under its Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). The ground for this dispute was Indias belief that under the WTO structure, discrimination could only be made in favor of least developed and developing countries. Contrary to this, in December 2001, the EC had launched its GSP scheme which had provisions for five different preferential tariff preferences. The effect of this arrangement was that twelve countries received greater tariff reductions as compared t o countries like India which created undue difficulties for Indias exports to the EC and took away the benefits given to India under the most favored nation policy. [21]

Conclusion Special and Differential Treatment at the WTO: It is the privileged treatment offered to developing nations at the WTO based on the understanding that needs of these countries are substantially different from those of developed nations. This principle allows a certain degree of discrimination in favor of developing countries.

The India-EU Dispute: In India contested the European Communities Generalized System of Preferences wherein distinction was made between beneficiary countries and twelve countries were granted greater tariff concessions owing to the five different preferential tariff preferences.

The researcher concludes the draft with the mentioning of the relevance of the special and differential treatment for developing and least developed countries. It is essential for these countries to receive such benefits as their resources and services are not comparable to developed countries and such treatment provides an impetus to such countries to produce and prosper.

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